Seeing Red? How Room Colors Influence Emotions

My teen son decided he wanted to paint his room black.

“Black?” I asked, while secretly trying to buy time as to how I might convince him to go with a different hue. The emotional ramifications of staring at all black walls were running through my head.

‘How about a dark rich blue?” I offered in compromise.

How we respond to colors has long been a topic of interest in environmental psychology. Over the past century, researchers have examined both broad patterns of color–emotion correspondences and more specific effects of paint hues in enclosed spaces. What are the overall conclusions we’ve drawn from this vast research?

A large-scale systematic review of 132 empirical studies (1895–2022; n ≈ 42,000 participants across 64 countries) identified consistent associations between basic color categories and emotions (e.g., red with anger or excitement; blue/green with calm or sadness; pink with love) (Palmer, Schloss, & Sammartino, 2024). Red tended to evoke both high-arousal positive (e.g., love, excitement) and negative (e.g., anger, hostility) emotions, while blue-green hues were consistently tied to low-arousal positivity and relaxation (Palmer et al., 2024).

Warm colors like red, orange, and yellow have been shown to produce physiological arousal and heightened emotional activation (Kurt & Osueke, 2014). For instance, studies have documented increased heart rate and metabolic activity in participants exposed to red environments, while cool hues—particularly blue and green—have a calming effect and may reduce stress (Kurt & Osueke, 2014).

Ecological valence theory (EVT) posits that color preferences reflect affective associations with objects commonly tied to those hues (Palmer & Schloss, 2010). For example, people tend to favor blue because it is associated with pleasant items such as clean water and clear sky; conversely, brown may be disliked due to associations with decay or waste (Palmer & Schloss, 2010). EVT has successfully accounted for approximately 80 % of the variance in color preferences among U.S. adults (Palmer & Schloss, 2010). Subsequent research showed that this explained variance can vary by gender and culture (e.g., ~74 % in males, ~45 % in females) (Schloss & Palmer, 2011), and tends to decline sharply in non‑Western samples (e.g., 37 % in Saudi Arabia; ~23 % in Namibia’s Himba people) (Al‑Rasheed, Franklin, & Maule, 2022; Taylor et al., 2013). Moreover, experimental priming studies demonstrated that affective experiences with red or green objects could temporarily alter preferences for those paint colors, though these effects often diminished within 24 hours (Strauss, Schloss, & Palmer, 2013; also see Kurt & Osueke, 2014). These findings suggest that color preferences are dynamic and shaped by associative learning.

Practical design recommendations can be derived from these findings:

    •    Use cool hues (blue/green) with moderate saturation and warm white lighting in bedrooms or relaxation areas to foster calm and reduce stress.

    •    Incorporate warm or bright colors (red/orange/yellow) in active zones like kitchens or exercise rooms—but keep saturation moderate to avoid overstimulation.

    •    Consider light, pastel tones and softer contrasts for positive mood enhancement.

    •    Be mindful of cultural norms, individual preferences, and intended room use: responses to the same color can differ across individuals and contexts.

Despite robust patterns, caution is warranted. Many studies rely on short‑term exposure, small samples, or abstract color patches rather than fully furnished rooms. Longer-term or more immersive exposure could yield different effects. And, as always, individual preferences and unique responses are always a factor.

So, what about a room with black walls? (As it is quite evident at this point my son has decided that black is his wall color of choice.) A black-painted room can be dramatic, elegant, and emotionally rich, but it requires thoughtful design. Empirical research suggests that black is generally associated with low-arousal negative emotions, such as sadness, fear, or introspection (Palmer, Schloss, & Sammartino, 2024). These associations are not universally negative, however; in design contexts, black is also linked with sophistication, depth, and power (Palmer & Schloss, 2010). According to ecological valence theory, people's color preferences reflect their cumulative affective experiences with color-associated objects—so if someone associates black with elegance or control, they may experience positive emotions in a black room (Palmer & Schloss, 2010). Nonetheless, excessive use of black can dampen mood and energy, especially in poorly lit or confined spaces (Kurt & Osueke, 2014). Thoughtful application—such as pairing black with contrasting materials, layered lighting, and intentional design elements—can mitigate its drawbacks and promote a sense of coziness, introspection, or modern luxury (Schloss & Palmer, 2011). Ultimately, the psychological impact of black depends heavily on context, lighting, personal associations, and cultural norms.

We painted the walls Tricorn Black by Sherwin Williams and balanced the paint with crisp white trim and layered lighting. And it worked for us.

References (APA-style)

Al‑Rasheed, S., Franklin, A., & Maule, J. (2022). A test of the ecological valence theory of color preference: The case of Arabic. COGSCI, n/a. [Summarized literature]

Genschow, O., Noll, T., Wänke, M., & Gersbach, R. (2015). Does Baker–Miller pink reduce aggression in prison detention cells? A critical empirical examination. Psychology, Crime & Law.

Kurt, S., & Osueke, K. K. (2014). The effects of color on the moods of college students. SAGE Open, n/a.

Palmer, S. E., & Schloss, K. B. (2010). An ecological valence theory of human color preference. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107(19), 8877–8882.

Palmer, S. E., Schloss, K. B., & Sammartino, J. (2024). Do we feel colours? A systematic review of 128 years of psychological research linking colours and emotions. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review.

Pellegrini, R. J., Schauss, A. G., & Miller, M. E. (1981). Room color and aggression in a criminal detention holding cell: A test of the “tranquilizing pink” hypothesis. Journal of Orthomolecular Psychiatry.

Schloss, K. B., & Palmer, S. E. (2011). Effects of university affiliation and “school spirit” on color preferences: Berkeley versus Stanford. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review.

Strauss, E., Schloss, K. B., & Palmer, S. E. (2013). Color preferences change after experience with liked/disliked colored objects. (follow‑up EVT priming study).

Taylor, C., Schloss, K. B., Palmer, S. E., & Franklin, A. (2013). (Himba color preference study; referenced in frontiers, 2022)

Yokosawa, K. et al. (2016). Ecological effects in cross‑cultural differences between U.S. and Japanese color preferences. Cognitive Science.

Using the Smell of Grandma’s Cookies to Sell Socks: Scent Marketing

The research on smell is particularly interesting as it is often associated with bringing back past memories. This phenomenon is due to the unique connection of the olfactory system to the limbic system—the area of the brain that influences emotions, memories, and arousal. It’s been found that memories triggered by olfactory information tend to be more emotional and invoke a sense of going back into time when compared with memories that are triggered by verbal or visual information.[1]  The smell of a certain perfume can bring back vivid memories of someone special or a certain point in time. The smell of freshly baked chocolate-chip cookies might be associated with a childhood visit to grandma’s house.

 Smell has such an impact on people’s thoughts and behaviors that many businesses have been incorporating smell into their marketing strategies. Using smell to market products, places, and services is becoming more prevalent with time.  The smell of a store and its influence on customers or the smell placed in a new car are examples of how smell is being used in marketing. The use of these scents (termed scent marketing) in stores is to create a pleasant atmosphere that encourages prolonged shopping and, consequently, increased consumption of the items and experiences offered.[2] An oil or leather fragrance in a new car evokes a more pleasing and familiar experience than that of plastic or metal.[3] Associations might even be made between these pleasant scents and a specific business such as a hotel. Thus, merely smelling the scent could bring the business back into the forefront of thought and build a brand. Dollars spent on the initial marketing may form long-term associations that continue to influence buying behaviors well into the future. In a different approach, using the smell of grandma’s chocolate-chip cookies on the packaging for new socks can result in an immediate positive association with the product.

 Scent marketing is an area of neuroeconomics that uses varied techniques (such as EEGs or fMRIs) to examine consumers and their reactions.  Because of the nature of how we process information through this sense, these scent marketing methods are not easily tuned out like auditory or visual stimuli might be. With so much potential, businesses are studying the physiological responses of consumers to their products and, though we may not consciously pick up on the smell of a store, it is now certain that it may not be an arbitrary one.

—N. Jung

[1] Larsson, M., & Willander, J. (2009). Autobiographical Odor Memory. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1170318-323. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.03934

[2] Emsenhuber, B., (2009). Scent marketing: Subliminal advertising messages. In: Fischer, S., Maehle, E. & Reischuk, R. (Hrsg.), Informatik 2009 – Im Focus das Leben. Bonn: Gesellschaft für Informatik e. V.. (S. 518-518).

[3] Emsenhuber, B., (2009). Scent marketing: Subliminal advertising messages. In: Fischer, S., Maehle, E. & Reischuk, R. (Hrsg.), Informatik 2009 – Im Focus das Leben. Bonn: Gesellschaft für Informatik e. V.. (S. 518-518).

To change or not to change

Taking their husband’s last name after marriage-What do most new brides decide?

To change or not to change; to hyphenate or not to hyphenate—as their wedding day approaches, soon-to-be brides may consider these thoughts when it comes to their last name. Though more women are beginning to choose alternatives to taking their husband’s surname (last name), the vast majority continue to adhere to common tradition and change their last name to that of their husbands (1).  In fact, in a recent study only six percent of U.S. born women were found to have unconventional surnames.  That means that over 90 percent or at least 9 out of every 10 women choose to go the traditional route and take their partner's name upon marriage.

Why do women choose a nontraditional surname such as hyphenation, maintaining their birth name, or having two surnames?

Younger women, a larger age difference between spouses and higher educational attainment were all associated with nontraditional last names (1).  Based on this data, the more advanced her degree (master’s, doctorate), the more likely a bride is to choose a nontraditional surname. As these are just associations, the meaning behind these characteristics is still being studied. However, it would make sense that more educated women may be well established in their occupational field and known by colleagues and clients by their original birth name.  Therefore, they would be resistant to changing their last name and having to reestablish this name recognition.

So, what do people really think when they encounter a women with a nontraditional last name?

Research shows that college students do view women with hyphenated names differently than those with traditional last names, but not necessarily in a negative way. These women are viewed as friendlier, more good-natured, industrious and intellectually curious. They are also seen as more likely to be well educated and to have a career (2). Lastly, they are viewed as more agenic-or likely to act independently and make their own decisions versus communal (3).

What last name is given to the children, if the mother's last name is different than the father's?

It was found that about 90% of women with a different last name than their husbands still chose to give their children their husbands last name (4). Thus, even though they choose to take a nontraditional surname, they choose to remain consistent with tradition when choosing a last name for their children.

1. Gooding, G. E., Krieder, R. M. (2010). Women’s marital naming choices in a nationally representative sample. Journal of Family Issues 31(5), 681-701.

2. Forbes, G. B., Adams-Curtis, L. E. White K. B.  and Hamm, N. R. (2002). Perceptions of Married Women and Married Men with Hyphenated Surnames. Sex Roles 46(5-6), 167-175.

3. Claire E. Etaugh, Judith S. Bridges, Myra Cummings-Hill and Joseph Cohen. (1999). Names can never hurt me?'' : The effects of surname use on perceptions of married women.  Women of Psychology Quarterly 23, 819-823.

4.  Johnson, D. R., Scheuble, L. K. (2002). What should we call our kids? Choosing children’s surnames when parents’ last names differ.  The Social Science Journal 39(3), 419-429.

—N. Jung

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